Ignatius and Irene Partnership and Polarization - Literature Essay Samples

Ignatius and Irene: Partnership and Polarizationby Daniel G. DolgicerDecember 07, 2005Familial bonds add arresting dimensions to even the most torturously mundane of novels. The literary options are truly myriad; family ties can represent both complexity and simplicity, and provide characters with both adversity and appeasement. The intricate interaction between mother and son has particularly saturated the authorial mind since the dawn of literature. In A Confederacy of Dunces, author John Kennedy Toole utilizes the sacred union between mother and son in unprecedented fashion. In particular, the attitudes and activities of Irene Reilly and her son Ignatius determine the tone of the novel and guide its course of events. While Irene and Ignatius Reilly are both inherently insecure and unassertive, they attempt to remedy these debilitating traits in contrasting fashion. Irene betters herself, while Ignatius pursues negativity; Irene attempts high fashion, socialization, and dominance, while her son pursues pompousness, malignity, and gluttony. The psyches of the mother and son clan shed their default parallels and conclude the novel amidst tense polarization.At the core of her complex character, Irene Reilly is defined by unadulterated meekness. She is idle, unmotivated, and discouraged. Living with her sonwho preys on the weakhas only furthered Irenes despair. She listens to Ignatiuss belittling critiques, yet responds with silent bashfulness. Clueless in regards to proper postnatal childcare, Irene often attempts to stymie her sons seemingly endless arsenal of affronts with pleasantries:Ignatius, Im gonna have to go by the Homestead tomorrow.We shall not deal with those usurers, Mother. [Ignatius speaking]Ignatius, honey, they can put me in jail.Ho hum. If you are going to stage one of your hysterical scenes, I shall have to return to the living room. As a matter of fact, I think I will. (Toole 42)Choosing humiliation over dignity, Irene Reilly desperately trie s to appease her sonprobably out of fear that he will descend into an irrational rage and physically harm her. Furthermore, Irene releases her understandably gargantuan sum of stress via whimpering, rather than discipline and preventative measures: What am I gonna do with a boy like that?He dont care about his poor mother. Sometimes I think Ignatius wouldnt mind if they did throw me in jail. Hes got a heart of ice, that boy (Toole 42). Irenes rhetoric embodies an attitude of inaction. Even a shallow review of the novels inaugurating chapters will lend revealing insight into her default dolefulness and her self-destructive acceptance of the status quo. Irene, recognizing her pitifully powerless personality, spends the whole of the novel recovering from such melancholy.Ignatius Reillys natural disposition is one of fervent insecurity. His facade of control and abuse deteriorates outside the boundaries of his mothers home. When surrounded by unfamiliarity, his true demeanor is instantl y revealed; he becomes almost comically apprehensive, self-doubting, and eager to please. He is so powerless and unsure of his social abilities that he allows complete strangers to dictate his every action. When Ignatius finds himself in a proletarian-packed dance venue, his desire to appease the workers and protect himselfall at the expense of his dignityis unmistakable. Ignatius acknowledges his blunders, and defies his own cravings in an anxious bid to seamlessly fit in: Iturned off the switch which controlled the music. This action on my part led to a rather loud and defiantly boorish roar of protest from the collective workersSo I turned the music on again, smiling broadly and waving amiable in an attempt to acknowledge my poor judgment and to win the workers confidence. (Toole 21)If Ignatiuss homebound attitude of supremacy applied to foreign environments, he would refuse to honor the desires of his fellow laborers. Ignatius is clearly aware that he is unable to intimidate, an d is afraid of the ramifications of his behavior. Thus, instead of displaying impatience and high-volume vocal antics, he displays nothing but a consortium of friendly gestures and a synthetic smile. Ignatiusclearly afraid of revealing his true disposition and becoming a target of mockerytirelessly tries to conform to blue-collar culture when under pressure: I knew that I had recovered my ground with them when several began pointing to me and laughing. I laughed back to demonstrate that I, too, shared their high spirits (Toole 21). Ignatiuss inherent insecurity is epitomized by his inability to defend himself and his ferocious desire to further pacify the workers (Toole 21). He assumes a position of weakness and acquiescence when in public, and thus feels compelled to amplify his grievances when in the seclusion of his mothers home.To quell her inherent insecurities, Irene Reilly attempts to take control of her fate and her image; she attempts to better herself. Irene commences this scheme with a bold effort to make herself more attractive. She abandons her typically mundane (and stereotypically motherly) outfits in favor of clothing that she feels is modern and chic. Simultaneously exerting desperation and style, Irene clumsily attaches an article of botanic beauty to her clumsily matched outfit: she added a dash of color by pinning a wilter poinsettia to the lapel of her topper (Toole 116). Furthermore, she increasingly delves into the realm of makeup and various facial stimulants: His (Ignatiuss) mothers maroon hair was fluffed high over her forehead; her cheekbones were red with rouge that had been spread nervously up to the eyeballs. One wild puff full of powder had whitened Mrs. Reillys face (Toole 16). Although many feel that her newfound awareness for superficiality has transformed her into an over-clothed fashion catastrophe, Irene is steadfastly proud of her new poshness. Irenes attempted transformation from functional to fabulous is a blatant bid to legitimize her presence and raise her confidence. She recognizes that her lack of authority is a product of her lack of confidence and sedated spirits. She recognizes that regaining her personal prestige and societal presence requires a reversal of this lack of confidence. She recognizes that first impressions often craft relationships for the long-term, and thus wisely decides to loft her spirits via superficial improvement. To further her recovery from the doldrums of powerless depression, Irene Reilly initiates a steadfast bid to liven her social life. Irenea widower who is dependent on her abusive sonhas historically been a weak and lonely entity. Particularly because she suffers from homebound hardships, Irene needs to balance her home life with social endeavors. The obvious antidote to her sorrow is an infusion of jolliness, laughter, and company. Realizing this, Irene strives to create a tighter bond with her acquaintances, with a concentration on Santa Battaglia; achieving this goal requires appropriate attire, frequent phone conversations, and outings to the bowling alley. Ignatius quickly takes notice of his mothers influx of companions, and responds with his typically cynical and deriding rhetoric: My mother is currently associating with some undesirables who are attempting to transform her into an athlete of sorts, depraved specimens of mankind who regularly bowl their way to oblivion. At times I find carrying on my blossoming business career rather painful, suffering as I do from these distractions at home. (Toole 101)Ignatius, perhaps jealous of his mothers increasing socialization, consistently mocks his mothers social effortsbut to no avail. Irene steadfastly strengthens her public exposure as the novel progresses. Although her demeanor remains relatively morbid, Irenes efforts to infuse companionship into her meanderings breed tangible results. Irene changes her appearance, her daily schedule, and her attitude towards strangers. Most importan tly, Irene increasingly confides in her acquaintances, especially regarding Ignatiuss merciless behavior. Irenes embrace of social buoyancywhich contrasts with Ignatiuss defeatismrescues her from the brink of irreversible hermitage.To directly combat her waning lifelessness, Irene adopts an aggressive attitude towards her son, Ignatius. Irene gradually replaces her prototypical acquiescence with a newfound voice of dominance, resilience, and independence. Irene increasingly counters Ignatiuss demoralization, and becomes increasingly willing to criticize her sons generally reprehensible actions. By the conclusion of the novel, Irene does the unthinkable; she assumes full control of her sons future, and decides to send him to the lowly realities of institutional incarceration: I finally made up my mind. Now is the time. Hes my own child, but we gotta get him treated for his own sake We gotta get him declared temporary insane (Toole 381). Irenes decision to contact the Charity Hospital signifies the culmination of her incremental empowerment. She is no longer a pawn of Ignatius, and no longer yields to his every demand. Irene manages to reverse the status quo which her insecurity fostered; she commenced the novel as the dominated entity, and concludes the novel as the premier dominator. She succeeds in relegating the incumbent tyrant to a position of subordination.Much like his mother, Ignatius is cognizant of his unassertiveness and attempts to quell it; unlike his mother, Ignatius implements this policy in flagrantly repugnant fashion. To conceal his insecurity, Ignatius spews arrogance at every juncture. He lofts himself above all others, believing that he is more sophisticated than the working masses and more genuine than the aristocratic classes. Believing that he is too formidable a person to take part in the culture of dunces, Ignatius vehemently refuses to wear the headgear of frankfurter distributors: I will not wear that paper cap!Plunge the fork into m y vital organs, if you wish. I will not wear that cap. Death before dishonor and disease (Toole 158). Ignatius attempts to establish a respectable societal presence by constantly referencing his unrivaled intelligence and physical aptitude. When in conversation with his ex-girlfriend Myrna, Ignatius boasts that his amalgam of abilities overwhelms others in his presence: As the magnificence and the originality of my worldview became explicit through conversation, the Minkoff minx began attacking me on all levelsI both fascinated and confused her; in short, I was too much for her (Toole 124). Ignatius glorifies his personality as singular and complex when in fact it is wholly primitive. His pompous rhetoric is a method of escapist self-manipulation; he attempts to disguise his inherent insecurity by convincing himself that he is empowered, admired, and has a rich inner life (Fletcher).Ignatius attempts to counter his default weakness by mistreating his embattled mother. Amidst the mid -century Cajun conservatism in which Ignatius resides, a male cannot simultaneously shun assertiveness and maintain sanity. Ignatius is incapable of combating public humiliation, and thus diverts his desire to exert stereotypical masculinity unto his mother. Irene is forced to weather the ramifications of her sons public weakness. Ignatius and Irene seldom engage in dialogue that is not marred by critique and chaos. He condescendingly refuses to afford his mother a good-bye kiss, despite her desperate pre-departure pleas:Open the door, babe, and come kiss me goodbye.Mother, I am quite busy at the moment.Dont be like that, Ignatius. Open up.Run off with your friends, please. (Toole 115)Although Irene subscribes to a strict policy of conversational civility, Ignatius responds with a steady spew of childish belittlement. Instead of embracing his motherwhose emotional stamina is seemingly eternalIgnatius insults her appearance and her lack of productivity: Are you ruining that pair of a bsurd shoes that were bought with my hard-earned wages? (Toole 116) Ignatiuss lack of public fortitude provides him with an insatiable desire to abuse the seemingly defenselessa desire that leads to the constant victimization of Irene Reilly.Ignatius Reilly combats his insecurity and internal strife by achieving a seemingly impossible degree of gluttony. Ignatiuss life is devoid of familial love and friendly affection. Ignatiuss life is devoid of consistent romance and sexual indulgence. Ignatiuss life is devoid of productivity and self-sufficiency. To compensate for such gaps in his lifestyleand to strike an emotional equilibriumIgnatius consumes tremendous sums of artery-clogging edibles: Believing that the human need for food and sex are equal, Ignatius substitutes food for sex by doubling or even tripling a normal food intake. (Fletcher) Ignatius replaces sex with eggnog, love with à ©clairs, and his dignity with deep-fried and breaded eggplant. Ignatius becomes dependent on fo od to alleviate stress and give him a sense of purpose. By pursuing gluttony, Ignatius gains short-term gratification, yet becomes increasingly shackled by the uneasiness and depression that he strives to quell. He becomes obsessed with the production patterns of his intestinal labyrinth, which he believes is activated by nervousness. He suspects that his mothers seemingly empowered state disrupts his gizzards tranquility: the sight of his mother in full regalia always slightly appalled his valve (Toole 116). Ignatius becomes a bastion of physical flabbiness, and becomes substantially less physically attractive as his life progresses. Despite such adverse effects of overeating, Ignatius feels that he must continue such policy or risk worsening his depression and degree of stress. He is truly the pinnacle of the pathetic.Irene and Ignatius Reilly are an unwieldy duo of dynamism and dysfunction. Their dialogue is dominated by scuffles and maternal suppression. However, Irene and Ignat ius have parallel genetics, and deceptively parallel personalities. Both halves of this familial relationship are subsumed by fundamental weakness and disabling self-consciousness. Both characters realize these flaws, and pursue behavior aimed at improving their abilities to function amongst the emotionally stable masses. Although the motivations of Ignatius and Irene are alike, their personal resurrectional schemes are starkly contrasting. Irenes recovery focuses on self-improvement and empowerment; she beautifies, socializes, and becomes less tolerant of abuse. Ignatiuss recovery focuses on being so obnoxious, arrogant, and self-righteous that he becomes a walking farce (Caviness); he concludes the novel in a state of flatulent and frustrated solitude. Add to this Ignatiuss abdication from New Orleans (prompted by his mothers newly obtained mental muscle) and the rational reader will conclude that Irenes attempted improvement is substantially more successful than that of her son. The patient and tactful are able to overcome their weak genetics, while the bitter and cruel are captive to their inherited flaws.

Essay Sweat, Fire and Ethics by Bob Jeffcott - 743 Words

It is often said that products made in sweatshops are cheap and that is why people buy those products, but why is it behind the clothes or shoes that we wear that make sweatshops bad? In the article Sweat, Fire and Ethics by Bob Jeffcott is trying to persuade the people and tell them how sweatshops are bad. Bob Jeffcott supports the effort of workers of the global supply chains in order to win improved wages and good working conditions and a better quality of life of those who work on sweatshops. He mentions and describes in detail how the conditions of the sweatshops are and how the people working in them are forced to long working hours for little money. He makes the question, â€Å"we think we can end sweatshops abuses by just changing our†¦show more content†¦In this article he tries to prove his point of view of the sweatshop by proving and stating how the women suffer being there just so in the end we can have a brand accessory like Nike or Gap. Also he talks to his a udience because he mentions that we can write letters to companies when workers’ rights are violated and to show support of their efforts to organize, â€Å"we can put pressure on our government to adopt policies and regulations that make companies accountable when they fail to address flagrant and persistent violations of workers’ rights.† As of today there are some major brands that have the ‘company code of conduct compliance staff’ in order to answer complaints and investigates the situation and report back and tell what they were going to do to fix the problem. But with all those advances made there’s still any changes in the workplace because he states that a â€Å"a little less child labor, fewer forced pregnancy tests or health and safety violations in the larger factories used by major brands† but they still give them poverty wages, long hours of forced overtime and massive firings of workers that triedShow MoreRelatedAnalysis Of Sweat, Fire And Ethics By Bob Jeffcott995 Words   |  4 Pagesare ineffective. Bob Jeffcott, wrote and published â€Å"Sweat, Fire and Ethics,† in which he argues that citizenship is more likely to get rid of rather than shopping. Jeffcott’s purpose is to convey the poor working conditions of factories that ends in death of hundreds in which, no one is doing much to end them. Moreover, he describes what is really taking place in the manufacturing industries as well as what it actually mean to us consumers. In â€Å"Sweat, Fire and Ethics,† Bob Jeffcott effectively arguesRead MoreAnalysis Of Sweat, Fire And Ethics, By Bob Jeffcott1323 Words   |  6 Pagesfor sweatshops themselves are complex. The grand debate of opposing views in regards to sweatshops continues between two writers who both make convincing arguments as to why and how sweatshops should or should not be dealt with. In Sweat, Fire and Ethics, by Bob Jeffcott, he argues that more people ought to worry less about the outer layers of sweatshops and delve deeper into the real reason they exist and the unnecessariness of them. In contrast, Jeffrey D. Sachs writes of the urgent requirement of

Teen Suicides And The Rise Since The 1970 S Essay

Teen suicides have been on the rise since the 1970’s, making it the second leading cause of death among the youth within the U.S. Suicide is the act of taking one’s own life, intentionally. All of my sources have great information and some sort of stance in spite of all of the chaos with this topic. These authors include Emma Brown, Dahr Jamail, Sonia Nazario, Ophelia D. Johnson, Sara-Ellen Amster, Ames Alexander, Michele Ingrassia John McCormick, Ruth Padawer, Colleen Diskin, Joanne Fox, Gregg Zoroya, Kathleen Megan, and Michael E. Young. Suicide is one of the leading causes of death in the U.S and their are many factors that play a role in the process leading up to a suicide, including bullying, traumatic experiences, and mental illnesses. Bullying causes suicide. There is a firm link between suicide and bullying, as stated by many reports on bullying-related suicides in the United States and many other countries. â€Å"Children who are bullied as well as those who bully others are more likely to contemplate or attempt suicide† (Strickland 1). The National Center for Educational Statistics, in 2009, said nearly 1 in 3 students between the ages of 12 and 18 reported being bullied in school. â€Å"Bullycide,† is a term that is increasingly finding its way into the educational lexicon as a result of several teen suicides that were attributed at least in part to bullying. Cyberbullying is a new fad, per se, in today’s technologically advanced society. â€Å"In fact, some behavior in suchShow MoreRelatedEssay on Juvenile Offenders699 Words   |  3 Pagesbetween teens (pre-teens) and adults for thousands of years, and the question how to deal with the youth of a culture, in a punishment sense, has been with us for just as long. 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Im Proud To Be Puerto Rican Essay - 1303 Words

Are you Puerto Rican or American? Hesitantly, I dont know what to say when people ask me this question because I feel that I have to choose between the two ethnicities. Since I was born in the U.S., I am considered American. But, if I say I am American, I am asked about my origins. Thus, controversy evolves around inhabitants of Puerto Rico because they are considered Americans since Puerto Rico is a commonwealth of the United States. My skin is white, my eyes are brown, and my hair is dark brown. I am confused with Europeans, such as Italians, Portuguese, or Spanish. As early as the sixth grade, I experienced prejudice indirectly. I grew up in a predominately white neighborhood where I consistently heard racist thoughts about Latinos.†¦show more content†¦While they talked about Latinos, I kept quiet; I didnt want them to think of me negatively. This experience lasted throughout the school year. When I returned to school after the summer break, half of my classmates were Latinos. The Latinos in my class differed in the way that they were proud to say they were Puerto Rican, Mexican, and Dominican. Thus, I pursued a relationship with these classmates and I began to feel differently about Latinos. I realized that I was taking part in the prejudice thoughts my previous classmates had toward Latinos by concealing my identity. I also recognized that Latinos were struggling to pursue a better life and that we are looked down upon. As a result of discrimination, it is difficult for us to accomplish our goals in life. Presently, every opportunity I get, I talk about my culture. I discuss the hardships Latinos face and I describe my experience growing up Puerto Rican. Although I am Puerto Rican, I dont know as much about my culture as I should. Reading Harvest of Empire: A History of Latinos in America by Juan Gonzalez has brought new insights to my knowledge of Puerto Ricans and Latinos in general. Gonzalez focuses on language and writes that speaking Spanish is trea ted as a handicap instead of as an asset. Gonzalez gives us a brief history of Puerto Rico. He writes about the changes of the official language, which was English in the past and has changed to Spanish.Show MoreRelatedLangston Hughes Research Paper25309 Words   |  102 Pageslearning, but he kept Walt Whitmans Leaves of Grass. Langston vowed to learn by personal experience and to write in the authentic voice of a black American. During the Atlantic voyage, he shared a cabin with three crew mates: a Filipino, a Puerto Rican, and a black American teenager from Kentucky, whose songs and hilarious tales made the hot, miserable voyage on the rusty old freighter bearable. Langstons ability to make friends easily and to speak Spanish kept him out of trouble with the rowdyRead MoreMarketing Mistakes and Successes175322 Words   |  702 Pagesa $366 million loss. With Maytag’s overseas Hoover Division, the costs of an incredibly bungled sales promotion were more than $300 million, and still counting. Then there was the monumental acquisition of Chrysler by Germany’s Daimler, maker of proud Mercedes, for $36 billion in 1998. After nine tumultuous years, Daimler gave up and sold Chrysler to a private equity firm in 2007 for only $7.4 billion. Although they may make mistakes, organizations with sharp managements follow certain patterns

Essay on Networking Network Security - 2380 Words

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Inclusion For Students With Disabilities - 834 Words

Inclusion Position Paper Valerie Simmons University of West Alabama SE 506 Dr. Nichols July 1, 2015 Inclusion in the classroom is a widely debated issue in education today. Inclusive education means that students with disabilities are supported in chronologically age appropriate general education classrooms in schools near their home. These students also receive the specialized instruction outlined by their individualized education programs (IEP s) within the context of the core curriculum and general class activities. Inclusion was developed to make sure students with disabilities go to school along with their neighbors and friends. These students are also receiving specifically designed instruction and support to achieve and succeed as learners. Is inclusion in the classroom beneficial for both general and special education students is the issue. I believe that there are positive and negatives about inclusion but overall it is beneficial for some students. The issue many parents and educators face is inclusion in the classroom the best for all students. Parents and educators have to work together to make the best decision for the student. They have to decide if inclusion in the classroom is the least restricted environment that the student can learn in. I believe special education students should be included in the regular classroom as long as it is beneficial for the students. I believe some special education students have disabilities that limit theirShow MoreRelatedInclusion Of Inclusion For Students With Disabilities Essay1533 Words   |  7 PagesIt is imperative that inclusion techniques be implemented in the classroom. Studies and research show that implementing inclusion techniques in the classroom have immense positive impacts on all students. As a result of these findings there is a rise in legislation being passed that fosters inclusion on a broader scale. Furthermore, it is necessary to apply inclusion techniques from a young age in order to ensure the greatest success. In my opinion the application of inclusion technique’s in classroomsRead MoreInclusion Of Students With Disabilities2882 Words   |  12 Pages in the American Public School, is the move toward full inclusion of students with disabilities. There has been a rapid rise in the number of students with disabilities who are spending their school day in a general education classroom under the guise of full inclusion. The practice of inclusion came about as a â€Å"natural outgrowth of the Mainstreaming movement,† during the 1960 s (Fruchter). Inclusion is based on the â€Å"rights of the students and the social benefits† that they receive from being inRead MoreInclusion Of Students With Disabilities1075 Words   |  5 Pagesdecade Inclusion in special education has been a controversial topic among administration, teachers, and parents. Inclusion represents the belief that students with disabilities should be integrated into the general education classroom whether or not they cannot meet traditional curriculum standards. The purpose of the study is to examine the potential advantages and disadvantages of inclusion of students with disabilities into the general education classroom. The hypothesis is that students with disabilitiesRead MoreInclusion Of Students With Disabilities1252 Words   |  6 PagesI am extremely in favor of inclusion of students with disabilities. Inclusion can be defined as an option in which the education of a child is taken into consideration. For example, it involves the students with disabilities pursuing most or all of their education within an ordinary school setting with their other classmates that do not have disabilities. Inclusion has many objectives, but the most important objective of inclusion would definitely have to be in that it is a program that supportsRead MoreInclusion Of Students With Disabilities Essay1837 Words   |  8 Pagesmove toward full inclusion of students with disabilities. There has been a rapid rise in the number of students with disabilities who are spending their school day in a general education classroom under the guise of full inclusion. Inclusion is purported to be based on the rights of the students and the social benefits that they receive from being in a general education classroom. There are many who see this as a solution to the problem of how to best educate children with disabilities. Is includingRead MoreInclusion Of Students With Mental Disabilities1551 Words   |  7 Pagesis a term that expresses a commitment to teaching children with physical, mental, and learning disabilities in the classroom they would attend otherwise (to the greatest extent possible). In inclusive schools, support services are brought to the students as opposed to them leaving class to receive the help they require. This paper is going to focus on the inclusion of students with mental disabilities who are usually separated in special education classrooms. For parents and educators alike, theRead MoreInclusion For Students With Disabilities And Benefits For The Students Essay1987 Words   |  8 Pageshave inclusion in an early childhood classroom. There are benefits for the students with disabilities and benefits for the t ypically developed student. Not only are their benefits for the students, but teachers also benefit from inclusion in the classroom. Inclusion also shows diversity and shows the differences between peers. Teachers will have to differentiate their instruction and support the needs of all their students. Some people will believe there are too many concerns for inclusion in theRead MoreEssay on Inclusion of Students with Disabilities 2995 Words   |  12 Pagesschools are aiming to implement is inclusion in the classroom because of the benefits inclusion could bring. The implementation of inclusion is strongly connected by people’s attitudes whether they are positive or negative. However, while inclusion is being widely implemented, there is comparatively little data on its effectiveness. It may be that inclusion benefits some areas such as reading and social skills, more than it does others. In order for inclusion to be implemented properly it is importantRead MoreInclusion For Students With Learning Disabilities2259 Words   |  10 Pages 12 [Inclusion for students with learning disabilities] [Inclusion for students with learning disabilities] 13 The Inclusion for Students with Learning Disabilities in Special Education Lehigh University Bowei Chen Many researches show that students with learning disabilities have a high rate of victimization. This paper gives few case studies about how elementary schools implement the policy and guidelines to inclusive the students with learning disabilities. The purposeRead MoreInclusion Of Special Needs For Students With Disabilities1173 Words   |  5 Pageseducation system to include students with disabilities, there has being an ongoing research topic of inclusion. Inclusion, in this area, means the full inclusion of students with special needs in the general education classroom. The research and the debates about the issue of whether or not there should be full inclusion of Special Education students in all general education classrooms in all public schools throughout the United States rages on. The number of students with special needs that are

Theories of Communication for Social and Historical-myassignmenthelp

Question: Discuss about theTheories of Communication for Social and Historical. Answer: Introduction For quite some time, the term media is commonly used to signify the intermediary between the sources of communication message (object) to the receiver of the message (target audience). Hence, media has been seen as the technology used to communicate messages to the target audiences in various parts of the world. Contrary to the perception mentioned above, Dan Laughey came up with the media theory with the aim of looking at the media from another angle and deviate from standard thinking by putting in place all the other possible reasons for the existence of media[1]. Media Theory In order to develop an argument and support the media theory, various aspects have been covered[2]. The aspects form the basis of media theory and act as the themes put across for the purpose of looking at media in a totally different dimension. The aspects covered in media theory include technical, capitalist, cultural, political, social, and historical[3]. Therefore, the above listed aspects help to understand the media in a deeper perspective away from the common perception within the public domain. In the historical aspect, it entails focusing attention on the historical sense of medium, which is the singular form of media. With some common types of media like television, radio, newspapers and internet being referred to as mass media, it is evident that there is a common belief that messages from the media must be received by a mass audience[4]. However, it is imperative to note that the use of the term medium before the age of mass media referred to something or someone found in between the message being sent and the receiver of the message. Thus, according to above argument, it is evident that television, radio, and internet remain as means of communication and it is not a must for them to stay as tools of mass communication[5]. A tool can be a medium of communication between the object and the receiver of the message. The technical bit of media seeks to look at the press as the means by which the object communicates the desired messages to the target audience. For instance, the object can be a tool of communication such as radio or television. Hence, it is important to understand that the means by which the media communicates the messages to the audience can either be analogue or digital. Thus, the media theory looks at media as the means by which messages are delivered to people from the object but not the object itself. Before the 19th century, the media was seen as the means of communication only, and some forms of mass media like newspapers relied on sales as the only way to raise income[6]. After the 19th century, the media became more commercial as the aspect of capitalism started to set in. The media began making more money from advertisements and media was transformed into a lucrative business venture. Thus, the capitalist aspect looks at the media as more of the business building venture other than a mean of communication. The media in most countries operate according to the political nature and structure in countries. For instance, there are countries where the government fully controls media while other countries, government partially control the media. The media is perceived as a political tool more than a mean of communication. Thus, the political aspect portrays press as a tool of spreading propaganda and control the society in favour of the government[7]. Hence, media theory tries to unmask the media in various ways apart from how individuals perceive. It goes out of the box to give a critical view of the media that most people in the contemporary world cannot understand easily[8]. From that dimension, it can see how media serves other purposes other than being a mean of communication. The media theory goes further to give reliable and relevant information to back up its hypothesis and arguments. Behaviourism and Media Effects As the media develops from one form to another, it is vital to measure and establish their effect on human being behaviour and the well-being of the people in the society, that is, the recipient of the media content. Hence, as media transformed from the traditional forms of using fire to the present era of internet, their effects on the general public cannot be underscored. It is vital to look at how media affects the way people think, feel and act including the media impact on social, moral and political behaviours of the people. Thus, to deeply understand the effects, it is important to explore various theories which fall under the behaviourism and media effects. The first theoretical model that supports the media effects is the Lasswells formula or the chain of communication[9]. The model emphasizes the assumption that media messages have always had an impact on the receiver. The communicator of the posts has the intention of influencing the receiver of the messages, and thus the messages must be persuasive to win the spirit of the receiver and convince to borrow from the messages. The model is applicable mostly in politics where the propaganda by politicians is expected to generate a particular stimulus from the target audience making them act in a certain way. Another famous model in understanding the media effects is Fredric Werthams Seduction of the Innocent model. The psychiatrist argues that most of the programs shown on the television have a direct influence on the minds and behaviour of children who come into contact with such media. Wertham maintains that innocent children will tend to believe each and every scene they watch on televisions directly[10]. Consequently, most of the children end up being influenced to understand and practice such views. The other model forming the basis of the media effects is the Cantrilss model of The Invasion from Mars[11]. The social psychologist Hadley Cantril maintains that media is having an indirect impact on its audience. In his argument, Cantril observes how a fiction radio play Evil Martians caused a lot of panic among the people. Cantril suggests that most people at that time believed that radio was the only mean of communication. The people could not also ascertain that the play was fiction. Hence, most people tend to think of the messages they listen and hear from the media. The Cultivation Theory is another model suggesting that television messages seem to cultivate certain behaviours on the substantial viewers over an extended period[12]. For example, the children who have grown up watching television and their exposure to it might end up nourishing and affecting their values and perspectives in the long run[13]. Thus, TV has a long-term effect on how society views the world. Agenda-setting and social functions model state that the media shapes the public opinion and other public issues[14]. The media gives the public the real problems trending, and the public will have to think and give their verdict on various issues set up by the media. The uses and gratifications model suggest that the people use the media in a way that they will fulfil their psychological needs. According to the theory, the press has some impact on how the media will influence the audience to view or listen[15]. The public will take in all the media content that fulfils their psychological needs. Modernity and Medium Theory The term modernity refers to the political, social, economic and technological advancements that are as a result of the transition from the traditional to the modern ways of doing things[16]. Thus, in the modernity and medium theory, various models stated capture the broad impact of the current advancements and their effect on the development of mass media. The invention of new forms of media changed how communication took place. According to Innis model of The Bias of Communication, the emergence of print media or press helped in devolving information since materials were distributed using the printed form from one region to another[17]. The introduction of the print media also led to rise of literacy among the people who embraced print media. It also helped the communities become more united through the use of the same language contained in the written material. Media has powerful effects on various societies. According to McLuhan, the nature of the media has a massive impact on the target audience. The medium has become the message, and the medium will control how the audience will connect[18]. The emergence of new media has changed the way people control the contemporary public and political sphere. According to Habernas, development of capitalism has hindered the rational-critical debate in the media[19]. The public area has been turned into a field of advertising and public relations. The public has no opportunity to engage their politicians, and the press has blocked the people from participating in a more developmental exchange of political and essential views. The development in the mass media has affected the culture of many societies[20]. The growth in mass media and technology has led to lack of real sense of identity and belonging. The impact of international content consumption as opposed to the local content has highly affected peoples culture. Thus, the modernity has eradicated local content and hence affecting the culture of people consuming the international content. According to Leavises and the Lynds, the minority culture of the elites dictates the moral guidance to other cultures and also the matters of mass civilisation[21]. Thus, media is bringing out some strong standardised forces that threaten the perception of other people. Media tends to effect on communities on the standardised perception according to the media view. Hence, many cities tend to change their nature of existence according to the media and all because of the press. The modernity theory has profoundly affected the media and the content it offers to its target audience[22]. The technological advancements have profoundly influenced the form and the environment into which the press operates. Therefore, it has also changed the media content offered for consumption by the target audience. The people have also been influenced to change with modernity and change in the mass media. Structuralism and Semiotics Theory Structuralism is the theoretical framework that seeks to understand how systems work to structure their individual at any given moment in time. [23]Semiotics, on the other hand, is a method used to study structuralism. It is used to analyse language as one of the systems that organise its components in units of meaning. Style is a system that forms part of other systems like social and political systems. Media is also the part of a social network and influenced by social system as well. According to Saussure and Barthes theories of language and myth, Saussure explains that language reflects both the reality and also operates in its system which brings meaning to the word[24]. However, a message referring to an idea can only make sense once it is different from others. According to Barthes theory of myth, belief and sound are related to making a meaning. Thus, media can develop myths and decide to nurture some of them and discard other. According to Hall, a doctrine is a discursive sense of ideas, meanings, conceptions, theories and beliefs and the form of consciousness which are appropriate to them[25]. Hence, the relationship between the ideology and the media can only be analysed using semiotics. Also, the press is structured in such a way that they deliver much thinking and myths. Hegemony is when political, social and economic values bring about an ideological struggle for leadership. Thus, the media will encode messages to serve the interests of the hegemonic forces. According to Glasgow Media Group, media remains ideological since they stay discriminatory and they present their view of things in favour of some interests over others. Although news is presented truly and impartially, they sometimes convey the ideological ideas of the dominant cultural groups. Thus, the GMGs Ideology of News concludes that in the long run, media remains biased to favour dominant ideological interests. Hence, media continues at the centre stage in determining the truth and effectiveness of certain communication messages. As presented by Williamson, The Ideology of Ads states that advertising creates a structure of meaning[26]. Adverts present an ideological significance on the level of a communicator. Thus, the ads can only be understood once received. The receiver struggles to decode to get the intended meaning. However, the adverts seem to convey the message through the media for the benefit of the advertiser, and it is through the media that the advertiser can influence the target audience without their consent[27]. In some instances, media can only produce ideologies and present them in such a way that the intended audience understands them. Some messages seem to confuse the audience due to their different culture and subculture. Thus, in the process of designing, producing and distributing such words, it is imperative to note that the media should present such words in a way that they will be understood by various people with various cultures and subcultures. Structuralism and semiotics theory is developed to help the media and the source of the messages in structuring the words in such a way that the target audience can understand them[28]. The communication process is completed if the ideologies sent to the viewer are decoded successfully, and the messages understood. Bibliography Berger, Arthur Asa. "Theories of Communication." InMessages, pp. 16-33. Routledge, 2016. Bertrand, Ina, and Peter Hughes.Media research methods: Audiences, institutions, texts, pp.51-61.Macmillan International Higher Education, 2017. Cantril, Hadley.The invasion from Mars: A study in the psychology of panic, pp.12-19. Routledge, 2017. Couldry, Nick.Media, society, world: Social theory and digital media practice, pp. 29-35, Polity, 2012. Culler, Jonathan.On deconstruction: Theory and criticism after structuralism, pp.49-53. Routledge, 2014. Delanty, Gerard.Social theory in a changing world: Conceptions of modernity, pp.31-37, John Wiley Sons, 2013. Ehlers, Wolfgang, and Joachim Bluhm, eds.Porous media: theory, experiments and numerical applications, pp. 8-11. Springer Science Business Media, 2013. Hebdige, Dick.Subculture: The meaning of style, pp. 19-25. Routledge, 2012. Hirst, Martin, John Harrison, and Patricia Mazepa.Communication and new media: From broadcast to narrowcast, pp. 49-65. Oxford University Press, 2014. Innis, Harold A.Essays in Canadian economic history, pp. 73-77. University of Toronto Press, 2017. Jenkins, Henry.Textual poachers: Television fans and participatory culture. pp. 62-66. Routledge, 2012. Katz, Elihu, Paul F. Lazarsfeld, and Elmo Roper.Personal influence: The part played by people in the flow of mass communications, pp. 43-47. Routledge, 2017. McQuail, Denis, and Sven Windahl.Communication models for the study of mass communications, pp.51-55. Routledge, 2015. O'brien, Martin, Sue Penna, and Colin Hay.Theorising Modernity: Reflexivity, Environment Identity in Giddens' Social Theory, pp. 18-20. Routledge, 2014. Potter, Robert F., and Paul Bolls.Psychophysiological measurement and meaning: Cognitive and emotional processing of media, pp. 26-31. Routledge, 2012. Puppis, Manuel, and Natascha Just, eds.Trends in communication policy research: New theories, methods and subjects, pp.39-47. Intellect Books, 2012. Sheehan, Kim Bartel.Controversies in contemporary advertising,pp.15-25. Sage Publications, 2013.